The Era of Militant Nationalism (1905-1919)

Partition of Bengal (1905)

• Announcement: 19 July 1905
• Implemented: 16 October 1905

Official Reason

• Bengal Presidency was too large (population: 78.5 million).
• Division was proposed for administrative efficiency.

Real Motive (as perceived by Indians)

• Policy of "Divide and Rule".
• Separation of largely Muslim eastern areas from largely Hindu western areas.
• Weaken Bengali nationalism and reduce influence of the educated middle class (bhadralok).

The New Province

• Name: East Bengal and Assam
• Capital: Dhaka
• Had a Muslim majority.

Immediate Reaction

• Hindus and Nationalists: Strongly opposed the partition; regarded it as the "vivisection of their motherland."
• Muslims: Initially, many Muslim organizations opposed it. Later, after Curzon promised development and opportunities, a significant section led by Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka supported it.
• Public Protest: 16 October 1905 was observed as a day of mourning. Rabindranath Tagore composed "Amar Sonar Bangla" and promoted the festival of Raksha Bandhan to symbolize Hindu-Muslim unity.

Swadeshi & Boycott Movement (1905)

The anti-partition agitation following the Partition of Bengal (1905) led to the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement, which emerged as a powerful instrument of mass protest.

Meaning

• Swadeshi: Literally meaning "of one's own country." It encouraged the use of Indian-made goods and promotion of indigenous industries.
• Boycott: Rejection of British goods such as textiles, salt, sugar, and other imported products.

Methods and Spread

• Public Meetings and Processions: Leaders and citizens took pledges to use only Swadeshi goods.
• Picketing: Shops selling foreign goods were picketed.
• Bonfires of Foreign Clothes: Public burning of British cloth symbolized rejection of foreign products.
• National Education: Establishment of national schools and colleges independent of government control.
• Spread Beyond Bengal: The movement extended to Bombay, Pune, Punjab, and other regions.
• Labour Participation: Workers joined through strikes in railways, tramways, and press companies. The first labour union, the Printers' Union, was formed during this period.

Impact

• Strengthened the assertive nationalist group (future Extremists).
• Demonstrated that mass action could effectively challenge British authority.
• Marked the beginning of organized economic nationalism in India.

Leaders: The Trio of Assertive Nationalism (Lal-Bal-Pal)

The Swadeshi Movement was led by a triumvirate of nationalist leaders from different regions of India, popularly known as Lal-Bal-Pal. They transformed Indian nationalism from moderate constitutionalism to assertive mass politics.

Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab)

• Popularly known as "Punjab Kesari" (Lion of Punjab).
• Led the Swadeshi and anti-partition movement in Punjab.
• Deported to Burma (Mandalay) in 1907 for nationalist activities.
• Strong advocate of national education and social reform.
• Later played a key role in the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra)

• Popularly known as Lokmanya ("Beloved of the People").
• First nationalist leader to declare: "Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it."
• Transformed Ganapati and Shivaji festivals into tools of political mobilization.
• Gave the movement a militant and mass-based character.
• Imprisoned in Mandalay (Myanmar) for six years (1908–1914).
• Founded newspapers Kesari (Marathi) and Mahratta (English).

Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal)

• Known as the "Father of Revolutionary Thoughts" in India.
• Major leader of the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal.
• Advocated complete independence (Swaraj), not just administrative reforms.
• Spread nationalist ideas through speeches and writings.
• Promoted boycott, national education, and passive resistance.

The ideological conflict between the Moderates and the Extremists reached its peak at the Surat Session of the Indian National Congress in December 1907.

Background

• Moderates: Believed in constitutional methods such as prayers, petitions, and peaceful persuasion.
• Extremists: Advocated agitation, boycott, strikes, and mass mobilization.
• The Extremists wanted either Lala Lajpat Rai or Bal Gangadhar Tilak as President of the 1907 session.
• The Moderates supported Rash Behari Ghosh as their candidate.

The Split

• The session was held in Surat in December 1907.
• When Tilak stood up to speak, he was prevented from addressing the session.
• This triggered chaos and physical altercations.
• Reports mention chairs being thrown and shoes hurled at leaders like Surendranath Banerjea and Pherozeshah Mehta.

Aftermath

• Foundation: 30 December 1906, Dhaka

Key Founders

• The idea was proposed by Nawab Salimullah Khan of Dhaka.
• Supported by prominent Muslim leaders including:
• Aga Khan (First President of the League)
• Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk

Causes for Formation

• Aftermath of Partition of Bengal (1905): The creation of the Muslim-majority province of East Bengal gave Muslims a distinct political identity and raised aspirations for greater opportunities.
• Desire for Separate Representation: Many Muslims felt that the Indian National Congress was dominated by Hindus and might not safeguard Muslim political interests adequately.
• Government Encouragement: The British government supported the formation of the League as a counterbalance to the Indian National Congress.

Initial Objectives

Home Rule Movement (1916–1918)

Founders

• The movement was launched simultaneously by:
  • Bal Gangadhar Tilak
  • Annie Besant

Foundation of the Leagues

• April 1916: Tilak founded the first Home Rule League in Poona (Pune).
• September 1916: Annie Besant founded her Home Rule League in Madras (Chennai), with headquarters at Adyar.

Objective

Methods

• Public meetings and political campaigns.
• Use of newspapers such as:
  • New India
  • Commonweal
• Extensive propaganda and membership drives.

Impact

• Movement gained immense popularity across India.
• Spread to Sindh, Gujarat, United Provinces, and Bihar.
• Attracted members from both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League.
• Annie Besant's internment in 1917 intensified public support.
• Revived nationalist politics after the Surat Split.

The Lucknow Pact was a historic agreement between the Indian National Congress and the All India Muslim League.

Context

• The pact was signed at a joint session held in Lucknow in December 1916.
• The session marked the reunification of the Moderates and Extremists within the Congress.
• It brought the Congress and the Muslim League together on a common political platform.

Key Provisions

• Separate Electorates: The Congress accepted the Muslim League's demand for separate electorates for Muslims.
• Weightage in Legislatures: Muslims were to receive a fixed proportion of seats in central and provincial legislatures, often exceeding their population percentage, particularly in Hindu-majority provinces.
• Joint Demands to the British: Both organizations demanded:
  • Increase in elected members in legislative councils
  • Provincial autonomy
  • Separation of executive and judiciary

Significance

Context

• The growing nationalist movement in India.
• The unity demonstrated by the Lucknow Pact (1916).
• The impact of the Home Rule Movement.
• Pressure on the British government to announce constitutional reforms.

The Declaration

On 20 August 1917, the British Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, made a historic statement in the British Parliament.

"The increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions, with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire."

Significance